What's a Glacier?

"Jesse Jackson is here.... you can ask him anything, but he's going to say what he wants at the pace that he wants. It's like boxing a glacier. Enjoy that metaphor by the way because your grandchildren are going to have no idea what a glacier is."

-Stephen Colbert in his speech at the 2006 White House Correspondents' Dinner

Two Mollusks and a Crustacea

The saga on Northwest wildlife continues...
 In an effort to honor the tastiest Pacific Northwest invertebrate, I'll begin this entry with the crab.

Dungeness Crab: This crab has a purple tinged back with a cream-colored underside. Mature Dungeness crabs are typically 6-7” across. Dungeness have several pairs of appendages. Two pairs (antennae) are for touch and smell. A number of modified appendages act as a mouth, used for cutting, picking, sorting and pulverizing food. The pincers appendages are used for grasping, tearing and defense. Each crab has four pairs of walking legs. A sideways walker, a crab will push with four legs on one side and pull with the other side. Appendages are also located on an up-tucked tail; the female uses these appendages to hold onto her eggs. Crab are able to regenerate lost appendages.

Mating occurs between hard-shelled males and recently molted, soft-shelled females, generally in the late spring and summer. Male crabs are polygamous. Females store the fertilized eggs for several months under their abdomen until the eggs hatch (between February and April). Large females can carry more than 2.5 million eggs. For the first 90-120 days after hatching, Dungeness crabs are free-floating planktonic larvae. Larvae settle down onto the bottom of an estuary or nearshore environment between June and September, where they molt into recognizable crabs. Crabs can molt as many as ten times in their first year.

Dungeness are both predators and prey throughout their lives. They feed on fish, shrimp, and clams and are a food source for fish (e.g. halibut, dogfish, hake, lingcod) and octopus. Crabs will also eat other crabs.

A hard shell is necessary to protect the crab and to function as a skeleton, but once a shell hardens, the crab cannot grow any larger. Growth can only occur with shedding of the shell (molting). The crab will first begin to grow a soft shell and then backs out of its hard shell through a crack. Shedding the hard shell takes about 15 minutes, but it takes approximately two months for the newly developed soft shell to harden. During this period, crab are vulnerable to predators and tend to hide in the sand or mud. The crab’s newly formed shell is usually 11-29% bigger than the previous shell. A mature crab molts about once a year.

Pacific Oyster: The Pacific oyster is a non-native species. It was introduced into our waters from Japan- hence one of its common names- Japanese oyster. The Pacific oyster is a bivalve (composed of 2 shells hinged together). The average size of a 2-3 year old oyster is 4-5 inches, however it has been known to reach lengths up to 10 inches. The Pacific oyster prefers to attach itself to a hard surface and can be found on firm mud, sand, gravel or rock substrate in the lower inter-tidal zone, down to a depth of roughly 13 feet. The range of the Pacific oyster on the west coast of the United States extends from southeastern Alaska down to southern California.

All shellfish are filter feeders, filtering many times their weight in water. They feed on plankton and detritus. Problems arise when pollutants, from bacteria to heavy metals, are present in our marine waters. The oyster filters the water and accumulates the pollutants in its tissues. This can result in illness and sometimes death in humans who consume the oyster.

Pacific Littleneck Clam and Manila Clam: Collectively called "littlenecks" or "steamers", the native Pacific littleneck clam and introduced manila clam, or Japanese littleneck, both have circular rings and radiating ridges that criss-cross on the shell. Reaching 3", these hard-shell clams are buff to gray outside, sometimes mottled with color patterns resembling southwest pottery. Manilas have an oblong shape with some purple coloration on the inside of the shell. The native littlenecks have a rounder shape with chalky-white inside the shell.  Pacific littlenecks range from Baja California to Alaska's Aleutian Islands, primarily abundant in estuaries north of Oregon.

Both are found buried at depths of 1-6 inches in mixed substrates of gravel, sand and mud. Generally, native littlenecks are concentrated in the mid-intertidal reaches while manilas thrive above the mid-tide level. Triggered by the warming waters of spring, the sedentary adult clams release spawn into the water column from April to September. Once the eggs are fertilized, embryos develop into larvae that drift with water currents and feed on phytoplankton.  After 2 years the clams are about one inch in diameter and sexually mature. These clams require over 3 years of growth to reach 1½ '', the legal harvest size. As the estuary tides flood their burrows, the sedentary clams extend their necks to siphon passing water, filter-feeding on plankton and suspended detritus (bits of decaying organic matter). Predators of the littlenecks - crabs, octopi, snails, diving ducks - meet the challenge of finding the clams, digging them from the gravely mud and breaking or grinding through the shell. Often, gulls can be seen dropping and breaking clams on rocks or other hard surfaces. An estimated seven million pounds of clams are produced commercially in Washington State annually, the majority being farmed manila clams. A creation story tells of how Raven first discovered humans in a clam and set them free.

Two Sides of Marine Life

This entry starts with seaweed, one of the most basic forms of life in the sea, and ends with two important species of marine mammals for the Pacific Northwest. 

Eelgrass: green, grass-like blades about 1/2 inch wide and 3 feet long. Eelgrass is found submerged or floating primarily in colonies. These colonies are referred to as eelgrass "beds". 

Eelgrass grows in the muddy or sandy substrate of the shallow sub-tidal zone, down to a depth of approximately 22 feet in the Northwest.  Eelgrass fills an important function in the marine foodweb at two levels: it is directly consumed by organisms such as waterfowl, urchins, worms, snails, and microorganisms. In addition, many other species (such as salmon, crabs, and heron) consume the organisms that live in the eelgrass colonies.

Eelgrass can also protect animals from overheating caused by exposure to solar rays in shallow water during low tides and in shallow areas. On tidelands, animals bury themselves underneath mats of eelgrass to avoid dehydration.  Eelgrass has historically been used for a variety of human needs such as food, basket weaving, compost, bedding, insulation and high-grade paper. Most industries stopped processing eelgrass in 1930-31 when the Wasting Disease nearly wiped out eelgrass populations along the Atlantic Coast of North America and Europe.

Bull kelp: Bull kelp is best known for the long, smooth, brown bull whips that wash up on beaches in fall and winter. This long stipe, or stalk, leads on one end to a bulbous gas float, attached to long, flat, leaf-like blades. At the other end of the stipe is a holdfast - a disc-shaped, root-like structure that adheres to rocky substrates at depths to 60 feet. Bull kelp is found in the turbid subtidal waters of ocean coasts and straits. The fastest growing seaweed in the world, bull kelp can grow from a tiny spore to a 120 foot mature plant in a single season. On the blades of mature kelp, spore-forming patches, called sori, develop and sluff off, leaving holes or notches in aging blades. These heavy patches often fall near the parent's base, but some may drift a distance to release their spores in new territories. Kelp typically break from their holdfast during fall storms, die and wash up onto beaches, ending their life after just one season. The calmed waters of the kelp beds serve as refuges for seabirds such as ducks, grebes and gulls which also take advantage of the food reserves within. Kelp does not recover well from harvest so kelp is protected from collection. An important economic value of kelp forests has been the habitat provided for salmon, herring and other forage fish, which have been commercially harvested.

Sargassum: A disc-shaped holdfast glues the bushy alga to the substrate. From this base grow several stalks, or fronds, often over three feet long with alternating leafy branches. Among the golden-brown, leaf-like blades are pea-size floats, or vesicles, and similarly shaped reproductive organs. Sargassum's vigorous spread upon arrival in the Pacific Northwest may be due to simple but effective methods of reproduction and dispersal. Each individual plant contains both male and female reproductive parts. Once fertilized, the heavy offspring fall off, usually settling within a few feet of the parent. 

Sargassum can be found colonizing rocky substrates in lower intertidal and shallow subtidal habitats. The rapid growth of this algae, along with its ability to reproduce in a single season allows it to establish itself quickly, particularly in disturbed areas of sheltered bays that provide open substrate for offspring to settle and mature. Once established, Sargassum reduces abundance of native algae by shading.

The ecological impact of Sargassum is not fully known. On one hand, the complex branching of the fronds provides habitat for large numbers of grazing small creatures that are in turn fed upon by other species. As with eelgrass and kelp, Sargassum provides spawning surfaces for Pacific herring, which lay eggs on the blades. However, where habitats overlap, aggressive colonization by Sargassum shades out eelgrass, kelp and other native algae - vital habitat for juvenile salmon, forage fish, and other marine species. The harvest of sea-weeds is not allowed because of marine vegetation's vital role in providing habitat to important species.

Habor Seals: Harbor seals use specific shoreline areas on a regular basis to haul-out of the water and rest. These resting areas are called seal haul-outs and include beaches, rocky areas, log booms and floats. Time spent on the haul-out is essential for their survival as they rest, dry out, interact and regulate their body temperature. In addition to resting, Harbor seals give birth to and nurse their pups on the haul-out, and undergo an annual molt of their pelage or fur. 

As we approach the months of March through June, harbor seal presence and activities will intensify leading up to the late-June to mid-August popping season. The early weeks are challenging for many baby animals, and seals are no exception. During this time period, mortality rates for harbor seals can reach as high as 50 percent. The NMFS marine mammal viewing guidelines mandate a minimum approach distance of 100 yards. The approach distance will reduce the potential for disturbing or stressing a resting or injured animal.

Orca Whales: Dorsal fins are curved in females and immature males, and become straight and triangular, reaching a height of up to 6 feet in mature males. Males grow to a length of 30 feet and can weigh over 8 tons.  Females grow to 24 feet long and usually weigh over 4 tons.

Orcas begin reproducing in their mid-teens. Females have a gestation period of 17 months. They give birth to a single calf that is usually about 7 feet long and weighs 400 pounds. Orcas will give birth at 4-6 year intervals having a total of 4-6 calves throughout their lifetime. Resident calves stay with their mothers in the same pod for the rest of their life. There are three pods (J, K, and L) with a total of 90 members in the Southern Resident Pacific Northwest community.

Pods are extended families that range in size from a few to 50 members. Whales always stay within their pod; they move, hunt and play as a group.  Each pod can communicate over several miles with its own “dialect” of calls, shrieks, and whistles.  A few times during the summer and early fall, all the pods in the Southern Resident community come together to form a “superpod”.  In addition to socializing, one main function of the superpod is reproduction.  Adults mate with adults from other pods.  This ensures genetic diversity and protects against inbreeding.

Scientists have described three population categories of orcas —residents, transients and offshores. Residents hunt in large groups, eat fish, and have a total range of about 500 miles. Transients eat marine mammals (such as seals, sea lions, dolphins, and whales), travel in smaller groups, and have a range of about 900 miles.  The offshore orcas are usually found 10 to 30 miles off the coast from California to Alaska and tend to travel in groups of 30 or more.  Very little is known about offshores, except that they possibly eat schooling fish.  

Orcas engage in a variety of behaviors, such as breaching and spyhopping. A whale is considered breaching if 2/3 of its body is out of the water.  This activity is often seen during times of socializing and foraging.  When spyhopping, an orca raises its head vertically out of the water. Orca whales have excellent eyesight and it is believed that spyhopping is a way for them to look at their surroundings.

On average, females live 50 years and have been known to live up to 80 or 90 years.  Males have a much higher mortality rate and usually live 30 years with a maximum lifespan of 50 to 60 years.

The population of orcas was hurt in 1960s and 1970s, when many juveniles were captured for use in live displays in oceanariums. The population slowly recovered in the late 1990's, however, the population quickly declined in 2001 and was due to a variety of factors, including decline of salmon stocks (a main food source), bioaccumulation of toxins in their blubber, and pressures of the whale-watching industry.   In April 2004, Washington’s Fish and Wildlife Commission listed the Southern Resident orcas, along with transients and offshores, as endangered species. The Southern Resident community has recently been listed as “endangered” under the Endangered Species Act.  As of late summer, 2005, there are 90 orcas in the Southern Resident Area.

Birds of the Northwest

I'm leaving next week to Orcas Island, Washington, to be an environmental educator at an outdoor camp. In preparation, I compiled a list of common flora and fauna of the Pacific Northwest and figured I might as well share it with my billions of readers out there. It seemed best to start with the kingdom of birds, because Emily Dickinson would have wanted it that way: "I hope you love birds too. It is economical. It saves going to heaven." 


Most of this information is copied word-for-word from various county websites in the Northwest. 

Great Blue Heron (blue crane, gray crane, big cranky): common sight near many wetlands, forests and estuaries in Washington. In flight the great blue heron slowly beats its 7-foot wingspan, head folded back on shoulders, long legs trailing in the behind. If startled it will emit a low-pitched squawk. It feeds by day or night but is most active before dawn and dusk. The great blue heron is an opportunistic predator who eats small fish, shellfish, insects, reptiles and amphibians and even small mammals and birds.

Common Loons: Common loons once were described as a fairly prevalent breeding species both east and west of the Cascade crest but likely declined between the late 1800’s and early 1900’s throughout the Pacific Northwest. A number of lakes in the Pacific Northwest appear to have offered ideal conditions for loon nesting in the past. Although it currently is a common migrant and wintering species within the area, it rarely breeds here. For several years common loons have either attempted to nest or nested in some protected watersheds in the Pacific Northwest. 

Burrowing Owls:

Burrowing owls are a charismatic species favored among many wildlife watchers. They can be found in grasslands, rangelands, agricultural areas, deserts, or any other open dry area with low vegetation. Unlike most owls, Burrowing Owls are often active during the day, although they tend to avoid the midday heat. Burrowing Owls mainly eat large insects and small rodents. Before European colonization, Burrowing Owls probably inhabited every suitable area of the New World, but in North America they have experienced some restrictions in distribution since.

Osprey: Body color is dark brown above and white below. Head is white except for a brown stripe from the eye to the back of the head. The tail has medium-sized, dark brown and white bands. The female Osprey has a ring of brown spots around her neck. The Osprey in flight can be misidentified as a large gull or even a Bald Eagle. The Osprey's wings are broader and the wing tips are not as pointed as a gull's. The Bald Eagle has broader wings and a larger wingspan. While in flight, large dark patches at the birds' "wrist" and crooked wings help distinguish this bird from other species.

The Osprey is one of the world's most widespread birds, occurring on all continents except Antarctica and many islands. Originally, it nested widely across North America, but contamination with the pesticide DDT led to population decrease and range reduction. The Osprey is rarely seen far from water, except during migration. It eats primarily fish but on occasion has been known to eat snakes, amphibians, and smaller vertebrates. It generally soars over the water searching for prey. When the prey is located, it dives and strikes it with its talons. Instances are known of Ospreys diving on fish too large for them, getting their talons stuck in the fish's flesh, and being dragged under the water and drowned.

Vaux’s Swift:

Vaux's swift is the smallest of the four species of swifts in North America.  Vaux’s swifts are approximately 5 inches long and are most closely related to hummingbirds.

Vaux’s swifts spend the majority of their day in the air feeding on flying insects.  A single swift may consume as many as 20,000 insects in a single day.  Unlike most birds Vaux’s swifts do not have a back talon, so they cannot perch on tree limbs and are most effective at clinging to the rough interior surfaces of hollow trees or rough brick-lined chimneys in urban areas for shelter.  Within these hollow spaces, referred to as roosts, a few thousand to several thousand swifts can concentrate as they make their spring or fall migrations.  Their roosting sites and movements constitute one of the great migration wonders of the natural world.

Bald eagle: When mature, bald eagles develop their recognized coloring of a brownish-black body, white head and tail, and yellow bill. Immature eagles have a dusky brown head and tail, a brownish bill, and blotches of white and cream on the body. As with most birds of prey, females are larger than males. Females are larger than males, and can reach a length of 43 inches and have a wingspan of 92 inches. The bald eagle is only present on the North American continent.

Bald eagles are both hunters and scavengers. They hunt fish, waterfowl and mammals, and scavenge from elk, deer and whale carcasses and roadkill. Bald eagles are great hunters for several reasons: they have excellent eyesight, they can perceive depth very well, and their ability to see details at a distance is 3 to 4 times greater than humans. Their razor sharp talons immediately contract upon contact with prey, and little spikes on the bottom of their feet make it easier to pick up slippery fish. Eagles’ bones weigh less than half the total weight of their 7,000 feathers, which makes it easier to gain altitude and glide as they search for prey. Food supply is the major dictator of bald eagle migration patterns. Pairs will migrate north in the early fall to get food in northern British Columbia and southeast Alaska. In the late fall, bald eagles from all over western North America migrate to Washington for the milder weather and food supply. When breeding season begins, bald eagles will return to their same breeding area and often the same nest each year.

Eagles display a variety of behaviors, mostly used as a form of communication between each other. During the winter, hundreds of bald eagles will often roost together in the night. The communal roosts occur in sheltered areas, helping the eagles conserve energy. These roosts may also serve a role in pair bond formation and communication about foraging sites. Bald eagles are estimated to live at least 28 years in the wild; deaths at a younger age are usually directly attributable to humans or human activities.

Bald eagles in Washington have made a comeback from a low of 105 nesting pairs in 1980 to 605 pairs in 2001. During the winter months when bald eagles from all over western North America migrate to Washington, the population increases to about 4,500. When Lewis and Clark visited Washington 200 years ago, the estimated bald eagle population was 6,000 to 10,000. Yet the Bald eagle is still listed as a "threatened" species.

Scoters:  Scoters are particularly abundant on Washington seas during winter months when the velvet black males and dark-chocolate brown females are often seen swimming offshore in large groups, or “rafts”. Scoters build nests on the ground at the edges of lakes, rivers and wetlands with each species having slightly different preference of nesting habitat. Scoters form pair bonds in winter areas or during spring migration, which are maintained and defended by males until incubation of eggs begins, at which point males fly off. 

Often seen swimming along the surf, scoters dive for blue mussels, crabs, clams and other invertebrates. 

Washington's scoter population is estimated to have declined by 50% in the last two decades. A large scale die-off in the 1990's occurred in Southeast Alaska and although the cause is unknown, contaminants are suspected. Reasons for decline in Washington are not known, but possibilities include:

• Vulnerability to oil spills: Scoter populations concentrate in nearshore areas where spills typically occur. Birds caught in oil nearly always die due to hypothermia or poisoning.
• Susceptibility to toxins accumulating in their foods: Cadmium, lead and PCP's are filtered by shellfish, then eaten by the diving duck, accumulating in the fatty tissue.
• The decline of spawning forage fish means less roe available to migrating scoters